English translation of the original Chinese article. Publication dates and the extent of recovered text are preserved. Figures retain their original labels. Read the Chinese original.
PhDSciNet elements team
Here is one of the most interesting and remarkable facts about germanium—pronounced zhě in Chinese: Mendeleev had already predicted its existence in 1871. Fourteen years later, the German chemist Winkler discovered this “silicon-like element,” germanium, while analyzing argyrodite. He subsequently prepared germanium by heating germanium sulfide with hydrogen. To honor Winkler’s homeland, the new element was named germanium after Germania, the Latin name for Germany, with the chemical symbol Ge1.
What Are Germanium’s Physical Properties?
PhDSciNet answers: Elemental germanium occurs in two forms: powdered germanium is dark blue, while crystalline germanium is a silvery-white, brittle metal. Germanium is a rare metal. Its crystal has an atomic arrangement similar to diamond, but similar structures do not imply the same hardness: germanium is a relatively hard, brittle metalloid. It conducts electricity better than ordinary nonmetals but worse than ordinary metals, allowing it to be used as a semiconductor material2.
Figure 1: Crystalline elemental germanium
What Are Germanium’s Chemical Properties?
PhDSciNet answers: Germanium’s chemical behavior is relatively stable. It does not react with air or water vapor at room temperature, but rapidly oxidizes into germanium dioxide at 600–700 °C. It does not react with hydrochloric acid or dilute sulfuric acid, but dissolves slowly in heated concentrated sulfuric acid, and readily in nitric acid and aqua regia. Alkaline solutions react only weakly with germanium, but molten alkalis in air can dissolve it rapidly. Germanium lies between metals and nonmetals in the periodic table, so it has many nonmetal-like properties and is chemically called a “metalloid”3.
What Are Germanium’s Main Uses?
PhDSciNet answers: Germanium has a range of distinctive properties and widespread, important applications in semiconductors, aerospace surveying and mapping, nuclear-physics detection, optical-fiber communications, infrared optics, solar cells, chemical catalysts, and biomedicine. It has become an important strategic resource. Germanium can also serve as a catalyst in the electronics industry, alloy pretreatment, and the optics industry3.
Biomedical Research on Germanium-Containing Materials and Its Limitations
Historical literature has reported biological activity of some germanium-containing or germanium-enriched materials in cell and animal experiments. These findings do not directly establish that the related products are effective or nontoxic in humans, nor are they sufficient grounds for calling such products oral anticancer drugs. The FDA’s import alert on germanium-containing supplements intended for human consumption records an association between long-term intake, kidney damage, and death. The properties of materials in experimental research cannot be equated directly with the safety of their use as medicines in humans.
Prospects for Developing Organic Germanium
Biomedical research on germanium-containing materials must distinguish specific compounds, doses, and experimental conditions. Results from cell or animal experiments do not automatically translate into clinically validated therapeutic effects. Nor do “natural” or “germanium-enriched” guarantee safety or efficacy. Any medical use in humans requires corresponding clinical evidence and safety evaluation.
The Development of China’s Germanium Industry
In terms of global production, China supplies 71% of the world’s germanium products and is the largest producer and exporter. This is mainly attributed to weaknesses in its high-value-added downstream processing technologies, which limit domestic demand and mean that exports consist largely of products at the initial processing stage3.
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References
1Tao, S. H.; Bolger, P. M. Hazard. Assessment of Germanium Supplements [J]. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology,1997, 25 (3): 211–219.
2周公度. Dictionary of Chemistry [M]. Beijing: Chemical Industry Press, 2004: 841–842.
3Baidu Baike: Germanium
4姬丙艳 et al. Research progress and development prospects of germanium [J]. China Mining Magazine, 2016, 25(s1): 22–24.
Sources for this revision: Royal Society of Chemistry · Germanium; FDA · Import Alert 54-07.
Editorial revision note: On October 10, 2026, the incorrectly written element name and hardness comparison were corrected. Based on RSC and FDA sources, experimental research was distinguished from evidence for human treatment, and safety information on germanium-containing supplements was added. The original author, date, and references are retained.
